Currency War Between China and Usa Essay Example for Free

Currency War Between China and Usa Essay Currency War: Currency war, also known as competitive devaluation, is a condition in international affairs where countries compete against each other to achieve a relatively low exchange rate for their own currency. As the price to buy a particular currency falls so too does the real price of exports from the country. Imports become more expensive too, so domestic industry, and thus employment, receives a boost in demand both at home and abroad. However, the price increase in imports can harm citizens purchasing power. The policy can also trigger retaliatory action by other countries which in turn can lead to a general decline in international trade, harming all countries. Reasons of Currency War Between USA and China: Competitive devaluation has been rare through most of history as countries have generally preferred to maintain a high value for their currency,but it happens when devaluation occur. China keeps its dollar artificially low so that countries like the US will buy its goods. China is the USs largest trading partner and if they didnt sell their goods for super cheap, markets like India would be able to under cut the Chinese and then the US would buy goods from Indian instead of China. There is so much trade between China and the US that China profits immensely without needing its Yuan to appreciate. This of course hurts the average Chinese person in that their labour is devalued but it beneficial for the country as a whole as it has quickly become a super power economicaly. In 2008, a trader paid one Ghana Cedi for one U.S. dollar, but at the beginning of April 2012, the same trader travelling to Dubai paid GH ¢1.74 for one U.S. dollar. This means that year-on-year decline in the value of cedi against the US dollar was 74 per cent over a three-year period. A point to note is that during the global economic crises of 2008-2009, the cedi depreciated by 25 per cent against the dollar. Between 2010 and 2011, the cedi again depreciated 18.5 per cent against the US dollar. For last month, the cedi exchange rate depreciated 4.29 percent against the US dollar. So is the current downward slide in the cedi value as a result of the slowdown in the global economy or due to internal structural weaknesses? This question requires a detailed research work beyond the scope of this article but it is a very relevant question to ask at this time. In economics, depreciation is basically the symptoms of an underlying problem, specifically imbalances in the Balance of Payment (BOP), emanating from excess demand for dollars. So instead of discussing the depreciating cedi, I will rather focus my attention on the causes or factors that cause currency to depreciate and what the government can do to arrest this problem in special cases. Before then, I must let readers know the difference between currency fluctuation and depreciation. Fluctuations in currency value are a common event and are usually no cause for concern. The minor daily increases and decreases in value are generally due to â€Å"random walk† and not due to an economic event or fundamental problems. However, changes in currency value become significant when the decline in value of the currency is an ongoing trend. Technically, when currency depreciates, it loses value and purchasing power, with impact on the real sectors of the economy. Although, the economic effects of a lower cedi take time to happen, there are time lags between a change in the exchange rate and changes in commodity prices. Factors that determine the value of a currency include the current state of the overall economy, inflation, trade balance (the difference between the value of export and import), level of political stability, etc. Occasionally, external factors like currency speculations on the foreign exchange market can also contribute to depreciation of the local currency. Such being the case, a government can intervene into the foreign exchange market to support its national currency and suppress the process of depreciation. Currency depreciation can positively impact the overall economic development, though. It boosts competitiveness through lower export costs and secures more income from exported goods in a similar way devaluation does. On the contrary, depreciation makes imports more expensive and discourages purchases of imported goods stimulating demand for domestically manufactured goods. Globally, governments intentionally influence the value of their currency utilising the powerful tool of the base interest rates, which are usually set by the countrys central bank and this tool is often used to intentionally depreciate the currency rates to encourage exports. Factors that can cause a currency to depreciate are: Supply and Demand †¢ Just as with goods and services, the principles of supply and demand apply to the appreciation and depreciation of currency values. If a country injects new currency into its economy, it increases the money supply. When there is more money circulating in an economy, there is less demand. This depreciates the value of the currency. On the other hand, when there is a high domestic or foreign demand for a countrys currency, the currency appreciates in value. Inflation †¢ Inflation occurs when the general prices of goods and services in a country increase. Inflation causes the value of the cedi to depreciate, reducing purchasing power. If there is rampant inflation, then a currency will depreciate in value. What causes inflation? †¢ Printing Money. Note printing money does not always cause inflation. It will occur when the money supply is increased faster than the growth of real output. †¢ Note: the link between printing money and causing inflation is not straightforward. The money supply does not just depend on the amount the government prints. †¢ Large National Debt. To finance large national debts, governments often print money and this can cause inflation. Economic Outlook If a countrys economy is in a slow growth or recessionary phase, the value of their currency depreciates. The value of a countrys currency also depreciates if its major economic indicators like retail sales and Gross Domestic Product, or GDP, are declining. A high and/or rising unemployment rate can also depreciate currency value because it indicates an economic slowdown. If a countrys economy is in a strong growth period, the value of their currency appreciates. Trade Deficit A trade deficit occurs when the value of goods a country imports is more than the value of goods it exports. When the trade deficit of a country increases, the value of the domestic currency depreciates against the value of the currency of its trading partners. The demand for imports should fall as imports become more expensive. However, some imports are essential for production or cannot be made in the country and have an inelastic demand—we end up spending more on these when the exchange rate falls in value. This can cause the balance of payments to worsen in the short run (a process known as the J curve effect) Collapse of Confidence If there is a collapse of confidence in an economy or financial sector, this will lead to an outflow of currency as people do not want to risk losing their currency. Therefore, this causes an outflow of capital and depreciation in the exchange rate. Collapse in confidence can be due to political or economic factors. Price of Commodities if an economy depends on exports of raw materials, a fall in the price of this raw material can cause a fall in export revenue and depreciation in the exchange rate. For example, in 2011, a ton of cocoa sold for US4,000 per ton. Currently, it is going for US$2,300 per ton, translating into fewer inflows of dollars. Interest rate Differential I will use the International Fischer Effect to explain the relationship between the expected change in the current exchange rate between the cedi and the dollar, which is approximately equivalent to the difference between Ghana and US’ nominal interest rates for that time. For example, if the average interest rate in Ghana for 2011 was 24 per cent and for US was three per cent, then the dollar should appreciate roughly 21 per cent or the cedi must depreciate 21 per cent compared to the dollar to restore parity. The rationale for the IFE is that a country with a higher interest rate will also tend to have a higher inflation rate. This increased amount of inflation should cause the currency in the country with the high interest rate to depreciate against a country with lower interest rates. Market Speculations Market speculations can contribute to a process of spiraling depreciation after smaller market players decide to follow the example of the leading dealers, the so-called market makers, and after they lost confidence in a particular currency start to sell it in bulk amounts. Then only a quick reaction of the countrys central bank can restore the confidence of investors and stop the currency rates of the nations currency from continuous decline. When the currency depreciation is based on market speculations, in other words, not backed by fundamental economic factors, then the central bank comes to the rescue- intervene. A sterilised intervention against depreciation can only be effective in the medium term if the underlying cause behind the currencys loss of value can be addressed. If the cause was a speculative attack based on political uncertainty this can potentially be resolved. Because after a sterilised intervention the money supply remains unchanged at its high level, the locally available interest rates can still be relatively low, so the carry trade continues and if it still wants to prevent depreciation the central bank has to intervene again. This can only go on so long before the bank runs out of foreign currency reserves. In conclusion, currency depreciation is the result of fundamental deficiencies with the domestic economy which must be corrected over a period of time to restore balance. However, where the depreciation is out of speculative attacks on the currency, then the central bank can intervene to correct the temporary anomalies, which, often is short term in nature. Lastly, intervention in the foreign exchange market by the central bank to correct fundamental weaknesses, just like the Ghanaian situation will not work, because, very soon, the central bank will run out of international reserves; hence, the cedi must therefore seek its equilibrium level. The writer is an economic consultant and former Assistant Professor of Finance and Economics at Alabama State University. Montgomery, Alabama. Currency War in the Great Depression During the Great Depression of the 1930s, most countries abandoned the gold standard, resulting in currencies that no longer had intrinsic value. With widespread high unemployment, devaluations became common. Effectively, nations were competing to export unemployment, a policy that has frequently been described as beggar thy neighbour.[30] However, because the effects of a devaluation would soon be counteracted by a corresponding devaluation by trading partners, few nations would gain an enduring advantage. On the other hand, the fluctuations in exchange rates were often harmful for international traders, and global trade declined sharply as a result, hurting all economies. The exact starting date of the 1930s currency war is open to debate.[23] The three principal parties were Great Britain, France, and the United States. For most of the 1920s the three generally had coinciding interests, both the US and France supported Britains efforts to raise Sterlings value against market forces. Collaboration was aided by strong personal friendships among the nations central bankers, especially between Britains Montagu Norman and Americas Benjamin Strong until the latters early death in 1928. Soon after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, France lost faith in Sterling as a source of value and begun selling it heavily on the markets. From Britains perspective both France and the US were no longer playing by the rules of the gold standard. Instead of allowing gold inflows to increase their money supplies (which would have expanded those economies but reduced their trade surpluses) France and the US began sterilising the inflows, building up hoards of gold. These factors contributed to the Sterling crises of 1931; in September of that year Great Britain substantially devalued and took the pound off the gold standard. For several years after this global trade was disrupted by competitive devaluation. The currency war of the 1930s is generally considered to have ended with the Tripartite monetary agreement of 1936.

Art Museums: Issues in Profits, Acquisition and Ethics

Art Museums: Issues in Profits, Acquisition and Ethics Acquisition, Ethics, and Profit in the Art World What happens in the art world affects all parts of it, from the most well endowed museum to the myriad lesser-known and unknown galleries that try to eke out a living. This paper will examine the ways in which museums have weathered the vagaries of the market over the past few decades, including not-for-profit institutions as well as the for-profit sector, including the gray area in which the two—rarely—meet. The unifying factor, as this paper will show, is the reputation of the institution. The reputation of any building that houses works of art is a priceless commodity, whether it is a huge institution of international reputation, or a small but well-respected gallery with equally high standards of decorum and ethics. To maintain that reputation at all costs is of vital importance if an institution is to survive and remain a respected part of the art community. Ethics, Profit and Culture in Museums The role of museums in contemporary society has changed in the last several decades; still considered essential to society as both reflection and mirror, museums have found themselves floundering for financial support as never before. To continue to thrive—often just to survive—they have had to adapt to meet the new demands of a multicultural world, while at the same time maintaining their respected status. Traditionally seen as temples for the muses, todays museums are being challenged to be ethical for society and to build their reputation (Wood Rentschler, 2003). Traditionally, museums throughout the Western world have supported themselves in a variety of ways, most of which are dependent on cultural travel and funding sources. Admission receipts and gift-shop sales form part of their income. Donations from the government and from private and other funding sources supplement that. In recent years, however, cultural tourism rates have dropped, and additional funding from government and private sources has dwindled, leaving budgetary needs unmet. To stay afloat, museums have had to adapt and change with the times. They have done, and continue to do this, in a number of ways. Among these ways, unfortunately, have been activities that have raised eyebrows in the art world, and questions about acquisition, ethics, and profit have come to the fore. Importance of Reputation As institutions which house the priceless treasures and artifacts of our cultural pasts, museums are generally held in high regard. Among smaller galleries, there is also a hierarchy, primarily based on integrity and fair dealings with artists and with each other. For the larger institutions, though, in order to maintain this regard, they are expected to adhere to a higher standard. This expectation is so deeply ingrained that it seems at times a given: museums are considered bastions of artistic culture and historical identity. They are institutions which foster intellectual growth and which exercise discriminating taste and ethical behavior in building and maintaining their collections. Regardless of the exhibition or programme concepts, notes Edson, there are qualities and initiatives that are fundamental to museums, such as intellectual honesty, promotion of critical thinking, enhancement of open-mindedness and the sensitizing of visitors to the commonwealth of humankind (2001: p. 43). This is a tall order to uphold—and one which is under constant scrutiny. What happens when these hallowed institutions fall upon financial hardship? They adapt. The ways in which they adapt may change our preconceived notions of what a museum should be. For example, the concept of blockbuster exhibits in the eighties was considered unacceptable to some. This blatant advertising to sell art—in essence, sell culture, seemed a betrayal of the highest standards, a mockery of itself. It forced many to reconfigure commonly held notions about the institutions themselves. In his memoirs, art critic Richard Feigen echoes what many felt at the time: As museums began to commercialize, to adapt to 1970s inflation, exhibitions also veered away from an emphasis on scholarship toward a preoccupation with box office (2000: 137). The very words box office, in such close proximity to scholarship and museums, would have seemed quite jarring at the time. Yet, since then, we have grown more accustomed—albeit gradually—to the concept of art-for-profit. After all, someone has got to pay for the acquisitions and maintenance of cultural artifacts. If the funding is not forthcoming, museums have had to choose whether to close up their doors and die out like an obsolete breed, or to reinvent themselves in ways they deem acceptable. Having for the most part chosen the latter, museums have had to become more aggressive in pursuit of the funds necessary to at least survive, and hopefully to flourish. This has necessarily caused their patrons to reassess and re-evaluate as well. Just as museum definitions have changed, so too has our understanding of museum ethics explain Wood and Rentschler (2003). It has also forced us to understand the roles of the individuals who run these institutions, as Feigen concedes: In this new era of museology, he writes, a directors success has come to be measured by the crowds he attracts, the funds he raises, the buildings he builds, and how effectively he can dodge political cross fire (2000: 109). A major issue which has sprung from this process of adaptation is the need to maintain an impeccable reputation in the process. The last few decades have been a period of just that, as the concept of the museum—and the actual institutions themselves—have evolved to meet the needs of the people they serve: the patrons. Todays museums are called upon to offer an enhanced experience in an appropriately comfortable environment, one that instills a sense of cultural pride as well as challenge. In so doing, Edson writes: The museum by facilitating that experience serves the individual and the host community to the fullest extent of the concept of public service (Edson, 2001: p. 44). In order to do this, however, the reputation of the museum must remain intact; this means that decisions about affiliations with those outside the museum itself must be absolutely circumspect. And this, in recent years, is where museums have been coming under fire. The Staff The staff of a museum—from curators to custodians—forms the backbone of day-to-day operations. Considered in that light, the actions of staff members may be seen as a reflection on the museum itself. This is something that pertains to all levels of staffing. The security personnel who are responsible for safeguarding national treasures may not be accorded the highest prestige in society, but the importance of their roles should never be played down. A disturbance that distracts even a single security staff member from absolute vigilance can potentially set off a series of events that may lead to loss through damage or theft. And there are several known instances in which the roles of security personnel have been key in allowing unauthorised access to works of art: that they would willingly allow this is untenable, but not inexplicable. Monetary pressures mount, and outside influences can be very persuasive. Arts organisations cannot think that their people will be immune to these pressures assert Wood and Rentschler (2003). They advise that clearly stated ethical practices be a part of every organisation to avoid this very thing. They must be part of the training program, and they must be reviewed and reinforced on a regular basis to maintain both morale and loyalty. Failure to do so can have irrevocably damaging results: If temptation is not resisted, it can compromise the values for which the organisation stands and irrevocabl y damage the reputation that it may have worked for years to create (Wood Rentschler, 2003). These practices must apply to all levels of museum staff, not just those who can provide immediate access. What about those in positions further up in the hierarchy, who have just as much access as well as additional access and power? Their actions must at all times be in accordance with museum policy; in addition, they must adhere to the law—local, national, and international. This is particularly important when it comes to acquisition of properties whose histories may be questionable. To knowingly—or unknowingly—acquire stolen property is anathema, however authentic a piece may be. Any irregularities regarding provenance are a red flag, since a single lapse in judgment can cost a museum its cultural standing as well as its profitability. Alan Shestock, Director of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, explains that museum curators are acquirers. . . . Most of us go into the profession because the desire to accumulate and bring together objects of quality is in our blood. We are personally and professionally devoted to adding to and improving our holdings . . . (Shestock, 1989: 97–98). This kind of passion, paired with the need to keep ones collection top-rate, can cause considerable angst. To know that a particular, highly coveted item is authentic is an exciting enough discovery for a museum professional. To know, furthermore, or to merely suspect, that its origins may be less-than-circumspect, means that this object cannot become a part of the museums holdings. This is not an easy thing to do. Explains Shestock: To consciously or intentionally turn down a highly desirable object we can afford to buy on the basis that we suspect that it might have been removed illegally from its country of origin—and also k nowing that it will end up in the collection of a rival institution or an unscrupulous private collector is a very hard thing to do (1989: 97–98). Edson and Dean point out several situations in which the circumstances may lead to ethically questionable behaviors. First, there are curators whose job responsibilities include researching and writing about the objects in their collections. Curators hired to research and interpret the collection in their care sometimes regard the notes and associated materials that result from this work as their personal property, regardless of the museums ownership of the actual collections objects (Edson Dean, 1994: p. 235). If the funding for this research is solely supplied by the institution, all rights would seem to revert to the museum. However, it is seldom this straightforward, as personal research may be involved as well. The situation becomes further complicated when international objects are involved, as there are several sets of law which much be adhered to in order to maintain high ethical standards. There are other, even more controversial situations, however, many of which result in unavoidable conflicts of interest. With whom should ones loyalty lie? According to Edson and Dean, in the case of curators, loyalty must be first to the institution; to avoid having to resolve the issue, they suggest judicious discrimination in selection of any extracurricular pastimes: activities that conflict with this loyalty or cause curators to favor outside or personal interests over those of their institutions must be avoided (1994: 232). What of gifts that are made directly to a museum professional? This can be confusing, since gifts can cover a range of services. A professional who would never under any circumstance accept a costly creation of artistic work may think nothing at all of accepting other favors, such as discounts. But these, too, must be avoided, and ultimately rejected. Finally, since it is commonly accepted that most individuals do not go into the arts for its lucrative remuneration, there may come times when it is necessary for museum personnel to supplement their incomes with additional paying work. This is particularly complex in cases in which higher-level museum professionals, such as curators, moonlight, or do additional evening or weekend work for pay. Such specialized types of work may bring them into contact with numerous opportunities for temptation, all of which are to be turned down to maintain propriety. Even a distant association with parties who are entangled with any kind of illegal trade can taint that professionals reputation, and therefore the museum itself. And cases like this are more common than most would like to admit—not to mention far-reaching: the illicit traffic in cultural property is, like narcotics, an international problem (Herscher, 1989: p. 118). Art for Profit In their article, Show Me the Monet, Steve Friess and Peter Plagens broach a subject which continues to be a point of contention in the art world. They discuss an agreement between the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and the new Bellagio in Las Vegas, Nevada. According to the agreement, the Boston museum would lend a number of Monets to the Bellagio—for a fee. The tradition of extending loans to one another is long-standing among museums, large and small. The agreement to do so for cash, is less common. Among the loftier institutions, it is practically unheard of. Lending art works for set sums of money puts a new twist on the issue. In return for the loan of Monets, the Bellagio agreed to pay the Museum of Fine Arts a hefty some—at least one million dollars. The traditional cashless quid pro quo for lending art to other museums—OK, well lend you our Picasso if we can borrow your Matisse—had been augmented by lending fees (Friess and Plagens, 2004). This calls into question a number of issues, the most pressing of which seems to be, where does one draw the line? If items which are part of a museums permanent collection are accorded dollar values and made available for that price, can anyone with appropriate funds borrow them? What will this do to the reputations, not only of the museums that engage in this, but to the works of art themselves, and to the notion of cultural heritage in general? Ethics, Profit, and Culture in Dealership In a similar vein, private art dealers have had problems of a slightly different nature over the past few decades. Contemporary notions of an art dealer tend to be unkind. Less-than-savory deals, sly cash transactions, cagy tax evasion: these are what come to mind before the subject of art comes into focus. Art critic Peter Schjeldahl puts it succinctly in his article on art dealership in New York, in which he asserts that popular opinion sees the gallery owner as a stock figure of slinky charlatanry, or worse (2004). Because of this, it is with no small amount of glee that people welcome gossipy tidbits about high-society art dealers being brought down in shady, six-figure stings. People savor the cynical rush of discovering garden-variety greed behind a pose of lofty, intimidating sophistication notes Schjeldahl (2004). But, Schjeldahl points out, no matter what one thinks of an art dealers character, one thing remains constant: good taste. Without it, all the pretension means nothing. In addition, there is a hierarchy among the smaller circle of individual galleries that are also part of the art world. Judging by her record of accomplishment and her reputation in the art world, Marian Goodman seems to embody the highest of standards. First of all, when it comes to discrimination and taste, Goodman seems to have an abundance of both. The reputation of a dealer is of great importance in the art world, despite popular conceptions. Goodman, too, has had to weather the storms of changing times, just as larger, loftier museums have had to do, and she, too, has survived. Among her contemporaries, however, Goodman commands a high level of respect for refusing to follow trends and continuing to maintain her own exemplary standards. She employs what some see as old-fashioned standards in both her selection of gallery site and her selection of artists. For example, her gallery is still located in Manhattan, New York City, despite the mass exodus of galleries to outer boroughs of the metropolis. Furthermore, she has steadfastly remained in the pricier part of Manhattan, in the heart of the theatre district, in the mid-fifties. In his New Yorker article, art critic Peter Schjeldahl explains that Goodman could very easily save money and gain vastly more visibility by relocating to Chelsea . . . (2004, p. 36). However, Goodman refuses to budge, preferring instead the uniqueness of her own more expensive showplace to the identical hives of lower Manhattan. Of course, as a private dealer, she is free of the pressures of a committee of trustees and similar directives. Conclusion The art world is at once a seemingly small and insular community on the one hand, and a global community of vast proportions on the other. What happens in this world affects all parts of it, from the most well endowed museum to the lesser-known private galleries. This paper has attempted to examine how both the not-for-profit and for-profit sectors have managed to survive in the last several decades, adapting to best meet the needs of their patrons while maintaining the integrity and values they hold dear. One thing that is undeniable is reputation: To maintain that reputation at all costs is of vital importance if an institution is to survive and remain a respected part of the art community. Edson and Dean have noted that Objects communicate far beyond the walls of the museum in which they are housed. They influence the appreciation and appearance of objects of everyday use, and the level of respect and understanding for the personal and collective natural and cultural heritage of a people or nation (Edson, 1996, p. 7). The reputation of any building that houses works of art is a priceless commodity, whether it is a huge institution of international reputation, or a small but well-respected gallery with equally high standards of decorum and ethics. The slightest hint of a breach in ethical standards is enough to shake the very foundation of an institution; if the breach itself is, in fact, made known to be fact, it is highly unlikely that it will every regain its former stature, nor command the same level of respect. References Edson, Gary. 2001. Socioexhibitry as Popular Communication. Museum International: July 2001, Vol. 53, Iss. 3, pp. 40–44. Edson, Gary and Dean, David. 1994. The Handbook for Museums. London: Routledge. Feigen, Richard. 2000. Tales from the Art Crypt: The Painters, the Museums, the Curators, the Collectors, the Auctions, the Art. New York: Knopf. Friess, Steve, and Plagens, Peter. 2004. Show Me the Monet. Newsweek. New York, Vol. 143, Iss. 4, p. 60. Herscher, Ellen. 1989. International Control Efforts: Are There Any Good Solutions? In Messenger, P., ed. The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 117–128. Messenger, Phyllis, ed. 1989. The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. Schjeldahl, Peter. 2004. Dealership: Onward and Upward With the Arts. The New Yorker. New York: Feb. 2, 2004, p. 36. Shestock, Alan. 1989. The Museum and Cultural Property: The Transformation of Institutional Ethics. In Messenger, P., ed. The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 93– 102. Wood,Greg, and Rentschler, Ruth. 2003. Ethical behaviour: The Means for Creating and Maintaining Better Reputations in Arts Organisations. Management Decision. London: 2003.Vol. 41, Iss. 5/6, p.528-537.

The Heart is a Lonely Hunter Essay -- Essays Papers

The Heart is a Lonely Hunter The Heart is a Lonely Hunter by Carson McCullers is a novel that takes place in a small southern town during the times of pre-World War II, the late 1930's. McCuller's main characters are misfits, lonely and rejected. They are all looking for a place in the world. The most tragic of the characters is a deaf-mute named John Singer. Singer's life basically revolves around his one and only friend Spiros Antonapoulos, who is also a deaf-mute. Singer "tells" Antonapoulos everything he is thinking or feeling and it seems as though Antonapoulos is interested in everything but what Singer has to say. Antonapoulos only communicates with Singer when he is hungry or sleepy. Singer just assumes he is listening and understanding everything he says. They lived this...

Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury :: essays research papers

Fahrenheit 451  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The novel Fahrenheit 451 was wrote by Ray Bradbury. The setting takes place in future times. The main character (protagonist) in Fahrenheit 451 is, ‘Guy Montag’. Guy Montag has been a fireman for ten years and he doesn’t realize that he is not joyful towards his life. He never questioned the joy of midnight runs. The plot of the story is basically how Guy turned from being an ignorant person into being a person filled with intelligence and a new outlook on life. Guy is a normal man that can’t find his true happiness within. 451 degrees is the temperature that books burn. Literature is taboo in this futuristic society, and Guy’s job is to burn any books or news clippings he sees, however his views change for the better further in the novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The author Ray Bradbury created a world where literature is not allowed. He’s trying to show how bad our world would be without writings and poetry. Guy is one of the many firemen who are supposed to burn every book or writing that they see. People caught with books in their house were forced out of the house while the firemen would burn the house down. The climax of the story is when Guy meets a seventeen-year-old professor who brings the life of writings back into vision. Guy soon realizes that he is unhappy, because he can’t express himself through reading novels and most of all poetry. â€Å"†¦And Guy Montag the same person suddenly realized what he had to do†(Bradbury 89) this is the climax of the story because; Guy realizes that he doesn’t want to live in a world without Literature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The best scene in the novel was when Guy met his old professor Faber for the first time in thirty years. Faber impounded the thoughts and beauty of Literature into Guy’s head making him a more out going person. This was truly the time when Guy realized that he use to love reading. Faber would read some poems to Guy, and Guy loved every minute of it. Guy was seeing things in life much more beautiful through poems. Faber taught guy to look at the moon and the clouds as beauty. This was the final turning point in Guy’s life. â€Å"I haven’t read writings to anyone for forty years ago when schools were starting to die off.†(Faber said to guy)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I can’t understand how these people in the future of this novel were able to give up reading.

Newspaper and Online Media -- Communication, News, Technology

Newspaper and online media have both done a good job to spread news story to readers. Newspaper as a traditional media is accept by most people for a long time. But as the technology is growing up, online media become a competitor of newspaper. Hall (2001, p.2) state that there are 200 million people using the web regularly and the web page is around 800 million. Nowadays, the web users are still growing up very fast. But the newspaper still playing a important role in news area. These two major news media become a part of people's life. Both of them have advantage and disadvantage. Newspaper had developed for a long time, and web technology is new. But they are all produce information to audiences as soon as possible. For many years, newspaper is the most easy media for audience to get news. Cole and Harcup (2010, p.4) believe that newspaper is easy to take and read it in anyplace your want. It is fast and cheap for audience. That is why many people like newspaper in the past. But a s the online media grow up these year. People can get free news on the website and the web news is much fast than newspaper. It offer people another convenience way to get news. In a multi-media world, the rates of those people reading newspaper is going down. Cole and Harcup (2010, p.7) state that newspaper is not going to died but the adult population of reading newspaper is going down from 77% to 50% from 1983 to 2006. And just 30% people think newspaper is popular in 2006. It is a huge challenge to newspaper after online news appeared. The newspaper and online media both use picture and language to tell reader story. But newspaper have a limited of picture and words. They could not use too many pages to show details. Website can add more pictures t... ...ine media both taking an important role in spread news nowadays. The advantage of newspaper is get readers attentions and make them have a great impression. The language and representation of newspaper will be much more profession and particularity. The limitation of newspaper is the space and time is not wide. They have to finish work on time and could not add information after finished it. And the disadvantage of newspaper is the advantage of online media. Website can edit anytime and provided as mush information as they wanted. Unfortunately, people have more choices on Internet means online media lost them quickly. Both newspaper and online media have their own characteristic. They need to learn from each other and think about how to catch audience and keep them. Change the disadvantage and get benefit from advantage will help each other develop in the future.

Radicalization French Revolution

Reasons radicalization of French Revolution By the end of September 1791, the National Assembly announced that its work was done. In many ways, the Constitution of 1791 seemed to fulfil the promises of reform which had been first uttered by the men of 1789. All Frenchmen could now be proud that the following rights had been secured: equality before the law, careers open to talent, a written constitution, and parliamentary government. Hence, there was a sizeable faction within the National Assembly who were satisfied and claimed the Revolution to be at an end as its primary aims had been achieved.However, by 1792 the revolution moved in a more radical and violent direction. Why the revolution became radical is often debated, and there are essentially two main reasons as to why it did so. First, a counter-revolution, loyal to Church and King, was led by the noble and the clergy and supported by staunch Catholic peasants. This threatened the changes of the revolutionaries; therefore the y turned to drastic measures. Second, the economic, social, and political discontent of the urban working classes also propelled the Revolution in the direction of radicalism.These were the small shop-keepers, artisans and wage earners, referred to as ‘sans-culottes’. Popular discontent and Jacobin agitation was evident in August as the city council was overthrown and the Commune of Paris was established. Despite the revolutionaries drafting a constitution, they now had no monarch as the royal family was under house arrest. By September the capital was in a state of chaos as more than 1,200 people were killed. This took place in order to maintain revolution and keep it moving forward.Although the constitution was already enshrined and the citizens had their freedom and liberties, there was still plenty of public dissent and disapproval as to whether or not these laws would help create a new government and prevent the country from breaking apart. The people had come this far and were not prepared to watch their efforts lead to failure or the restoration of an absolute monarchy. As a result of this radical forces were able to get citizens on side by claiming the constitution of 1791 did not meet the demands of all the people.Radicals led the Commune, discarded the old constitution and called for a National Convention to revise a new one. In January 1793, Louis XVI was executed and the Jacobins condemned their actions by claiming that the monarchy had to be abolished in order to eliminate as many of the royalist and monarchists that remained. France was declared a republic and it could be suggested that his death signified the emergence of nationalism as people remained loyal to the radicals. In addition to this, it highlighted the point where radicalism would dominate the revolution.The revolution faced strain as it coped with the weight of foreign war and civil war which caused the revolutionary leadership to grow more radical. Moderate reformers à ¢â‚¬â€œ the Girondins, had previously dominated the National Convention, but this was to change. Division within the convention began to emerge within the Convention as the Jacobins and Girondins desired different aims. Factional disputes resulted in the replacement of the Girondins with the Jacobins – the far more radical of the two.The Jacobins claimed it was their duty to save the revolution and their strengths helped gain them the support of the sans-culottes. It was the premise of the Jacobins that they should eradicate the â€Å"enemies† and secure the destiny of the revolution through the destruction of counter-revolutionary forces. The Jacobins managed to grip firm control of the Convention and the French Nation. Essentially, they were now the government. However, with the strain of civil war, economic distress and threats of foreign invasion, they realised strong leadership was required in order to save the revolution.The CPS assumed tight leadership in April 1793, and it has been argued that the reign of terror followed from this. The Committee ordered arrests and trials of counter-revolutionaries and imposed government authority. However, there was no turning back from the radical phase that the people had voluntarily entered. By summer, the reign of terror had spread over France, spearheaded by the infallibility of Robespierre, began persecuting even the innocent. It can be seen it was far too radical as even the moderate Girondins were accused of counter-revolutionary actions and expelled from the Convention.What was once a legislative, two-sided body had now become an authoritarian oligarchy led by radicals. It has been argued that this was a step backwards in the revolution as it imitated an absolute monarchy, without the safeguards of constitution. Around 17,000 people died as a result of the terror, and this was to be a stage in the revolution that could not be undone. In the summer of 1794 there seemed to be less need for terror and the republic seemed a reality. With the 9th Thermidor, the machinery of the Jacobin republic was dismantled.Leadership passed to the property owning bourgeoisie. The government then changed hands to the five-man directory and radicalism had been effectively thwarted. However, France was still at war with the rest of Europe and leadership began to pass into the hands of generals, which ultimately saw the emergence of Napoleon Bonaparte. France was not prepared for such social and political upheaval, and the resulting shift towards a republic would change the country forever.

Case Closed: A short Story

Jackie dropped her blue fountain pen and relaxed her aching wrist. She had been reading and adding to the notes of her client's case for the last two hours. It was taking place the next day and she hadn't even read halfway through yet. Laying back in the comfy black office chair she let out a long yawn and stretched out her legs under the desk. Her neck and back were as stiff as a board and she let out a low moan as she turned her head from side to side. Jackie loved her job as a lawyer. Eating, sleeping and drinking her work she would often receive criticism telling her that there was more to life than just work and that you where supposed to work to live not live to work. She was so bored of hearing it. That's why she lived alone, she was able to get on with extra work and block people out. She knew that they just didn't understand how passionate she was about her job. Well for most aspects of it. She hated doing all the written work and the notes on the cases. After hours of relentless writing, her skinny arm felt as if it was about to drop off. She slowly unhinged her sore arms and stretched up towards the ceiling letting out another deep yawn. She new she would need motivation if she was going to continue with her work. She rose from her warm, moulded seat and dragged herself over to her immaculate, open plan kitchen. Although Jackie's job took up most of her life she had always been a bit of a clean freak. She couldn't bear the sight of untidiness and she always found herself putting things away and cleaning up. Her indolent arms reached up to the wooden shelf and she grabbed a wine glass. Filling the glass up to the brim Jackie took a long gulp and returned back to her study. As she sat back down in her cosy chair she was disturbed by the irritating ring of her telephone. Sighing and reluctantly getting up again, she walked across the room to the phone and clearing her sore throat she picked it up. â€Å"Hello?† No answer. â€Å"Hello?† she repeated herself rolling her exhausted eyes. Still silence. Slamming the phone down she returned back to her desk feeling annoyed that someone had disturbed her. She took another sip of her wine and unwillingly picked up her fountain pen again. Jackie sat in her warm office in deep concentration. She had no longer sat down that she was bothered again. But this time it wasn't her annoying telephone. The noise that filled her ears made her jump out of her skin. It sounded like a lost soul shrieking from the depths of hell. It was her car alarm. Jackie strided through the narrow hallway and wrenched open the front door causing a gust of icy wind to hit her and enter the house. She cautiously walked down the footpath, biting her dry lips, her once warm feet slapping against the smooth glacial pavement. Pushing her tangled curly hair out of her face she bent down and checked underneath her car. Nothing. She glanced across the drive and not wanting to catch a cold for her big day tomorrow she hopped back up the footpath and back into her heated house. Turning the heating up on the wall she returned back to her work filled desk. She picked up her glass and stopped. The glass that she had left on the desk to go and investigate her car alarm going off had been half full. Now it was empty. She stood up, heart racing and stared around the room. She looked back at the glass suspiciously and rubbed her weary eyes. â€Å"I'm going mad† she muttered to herself. Jackie tried to dismiss that somebody had drank from her glass but she couldn't stop thinking about the fact she was sure she hadn't drank it all. She glided over to the front door and pulled across the top lock. She felt slightly easier and safer now. Positioning herself in her chair she went to begin her work. Again she stopped. Her fountain pen that she always kept on top of the mountainous piles of work had gone. Puzzled, Jackie began moving her papers out of the way and searching the whole desk work top for the pen. Giving up and becoming very stressed out because of all her disturbances she furiously got up again and went in search of another pen. She stomped in to the kitchen opened the white sliding draw looking for a biro or something of that sort that she could carry on scrawling her notes with. With no look she slammed the drawer shut and spun back around to have a look in the sitting room. She froze. There was her fountain pen propped up against her porcelain vase on the corner table. The hairs on the back of Jackie's neck stood up. She was positive she hadn't even been in the sitting room all night. She attentively moved across the room towards the pen. When she got there she stopped for a moment and just looked at it, it had been balanced against the vase. She was so bewildered that her heart started to race. She heard a deep breathing sound coming behind her. She couldn't move as her legs had gone numb with terror. Slowly she turned her head but before she could catch sight of her intruder she felt a sharp pain in the back of her head. Jackie fell forward knocking over the vase and hitting her face against the solid wall. She fell to the floor in a state of shock. The stranger dragged Jackie up by her long, blood-soaked hair. Without thinking she grabbed the man's thick, hairy arm and sunk her teeth deep into his flesh. His grip loosened on her hair and she stumbled across the room falling against her desk. Hitting the floor again Jackie began to crawl towards the door in hope to get away from the attacker. She lunged for the handle and tried to turn it. It didn't move. She remembered she had locked it minutes before. Frantically trying to unlock it she could hear him breathing behind her. The lock clicked open but it was too late. She felt another piercing blow to her head, then darkness. Jackie woke up with a start. The pain in her head was unbearable. She was trying to catch her breath but she couldn't, her lungs felt as if they were about to explode. She attempted to sit up, but hit her head on what seemed like a wooden surface that was inches in front of her face. She was terrified; she needed to know where she was. She hated not being in control of situations. She tried to move her arms. They were pressed tightly to her sides. She was in some sort of box. She let out a long, high pitched scream. Little did she know that there was no chance any living person would ever hear her.