Legalizing Same Sex Marriage

Damien. Lorden Unit 3 Individual Project There are many cause and effects to legalizing same-sex marriage, whether they are beneficial or not depends on the situation at hand. It’s becoming more common in today’s society to be homosexual. Most of the older generations think that it’s something that shouldn’t be legalized, weather it is has to deal with religion, someone’s way of life or whatever else the case may be.Although on the other hand, the younger generations now are becoming more accepting of the thought of same-sex couples. Most young adults/teenagers think that same-sex marriage is acceptable; that everyone should have the right to be happy and love is love no matter what they are. Even though there have been some good bad explanations to why same-sex marriage shouldn’t be legal; there are also many reasons why same-sex marriage should be legalized. There are many benefits to legalizing same-sex marriage that most neglect to realiz e.According to Ramesh Ponnuru in â€Å"Coming out Ahead,† Ponnuru states, â€Å"three causes that change the public’s attitude towards same-sex marriage are sexual revolution, gay activism in the 1990’s, and the disappointment of social conservative organizations† (Ponnuru, 2003). He continues to state â€Å"it’s time for conservatives to take their cue from the New Jersey Nets, or maybe from those hard-luck kids, the Boston Red Sox† (Ponnuru, 2003). He explains how it’s time to accept the revolution and stop trying to use other problems to avoid the difference in lifestyles of the old days and face the new upcoming eras.The times are changing and so should the way the government compares the new rules and regulations of today to previous eras and generations. The way people think and live today are similar, but not the same to how we thought and lived back then. The technology, economy, government, and even schools have changed throu ghout time. If inanimate objects can change throughout time with rules and regulations changing based on their evolution, why can’t rules and regulation change based on era changes/evolutions?In â€Å"What Century Is This Anyway† Edmund White states how â€Å"his generation watched their families marry and with that, 1 out of every 2 marriages ended with a divorce† (White, 1998). With White’s previous quote it could be used as a statement to help benefit legalizing same-sex marriage because: with legalizing same-sex marriage it could help by increasing marriage rates and help with lowering or at least maintaining the divorce rate. â€Å"The first state to legalize same-sex marriage was the state of Massachusetts in 2004† (ProCon. org, 2013).This had lead Massachusetts to have â€Å"their divorce rate lowered 21% between the years 2003 and 2008 also resulting in the lowest divorce rate in the country in 2008† (ProCon. org, 2013). On the other hand, â€Å"Alaska was the first state to alter its constitution to ban same-sex marriage in 1998 causing an increase of 17. 2% in its divorce rate† (ProCon. org, 2013). â€Å"Between the years 2003 to 2008, the seven states with the highest divorce rating all had constitutional prohibitions to same-sex marriage† (ProCon. org, 2013). Most would think that divorce rates count for at least something in the government and economy today.On the gaymarriage. procon. org website is a list of pros and cons for legalizing same-sex marriage. According to one of the many pros listed, â€Å"same-sex marriage could benefit everyone by financial gain to state and local governments† (ProCon. org). Between â€Å"marriage licenses, higher income taxes (the so-called â€Å"marriage penalty†), and the decreases in costs for state benefit programs. The Comptroller for New York City found that legalizing gay marriage would bring $142 million to the City’s economy and $184 million to the State’s economy over three years† (ProCon. org). Same-sex marriage will also make it easier for same-sex couples to adopt† (ProCon. org, 2013). This would benefit the â€Å"US with the 100,000 children are waiting to be adopted, a longitudinal study published in Pediatrics on June 7, 2010† (ProCon. org, 2013). This study â€Å"found that children of lesbian mothers were rated higher than children of heterosexual parents in social and academic competence. The children also had fewer social problems† (ProCon. org, 2013). â€Å"Another study on July 2010 found that children of gay fathers were â€Å"as well-adjusted as those adopted by heterosexual parents†Ã¢â‚¬  (ProCon. rg, 2013) In conclusion, legalizing same-sex marriage can be a very beneficial thing for our government as well as the economy. With the change of times, generations and eras, it’s time to change the ways and views of traditional values. â€Å"Two people of the same sex who love each other should be allowed to publicly celebrate their commitment and receive the same benefits of marriage as opposite sex couples† (ProCon. org). â€Å"There is no such thing as traditional marriage† (ProCon. org). It’s time to except the revolution!

The pros and cons of a database management system (DBMS) for a new a newly established multi-campus

This assignment is an attempt to present a position paper about the pros and cons of a database management system (DBMS) for a new a newly established multi-campus Mpokeleshi University library in Muchinga province of Zambia. It further gives sufficiently clear arguments to enable the vice-chancellor make an informed decision on the way forward. The paper will first define the major concepts under review before outlining the pros and cons of a database management system (DBMS) and finally give sufficiently clear arguments to enable the vice-chancellor make an informed decision on the way forward.DEFINITIONS OF MAJOR CONCEPTSTo begin with are the definitions of major concepts under review and these are pros and cons, and database management system (DBMS). According to the oxford university dictionary, pros and cons mean advantages and disadvantages or arguments for and against something. A database management system (DBMS) on the other hand can be broken down and be defined as single concepts as follows: ‘data’ are the raw facts or figures which are processed to get the information. A database is a collection of data stored in a standardized format, designed to be processed, shared by different users and may have single or multiple tables organized in rows and columns.Therefore, a database management system (DBMS) can be defined as â€Å" a software that defines a database, stores the data and supports a query language, produces reports, and creates data entry forms†, (Laudon, 2000:221). Others have defined a database management system as a complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database.ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSDatabase management system (DBMS) is a central system which provides a common interface between the data and the various front-end programs in the application. It also provides a central location for the whole data in the application to reside. D atabase management system (DBMS) has several advantages and among them includes minimal data redundancy: since the whole data resides in one central database, the various programs in the application can access data in different data files. Therefore, data present in one file need not be duplicated in another file thus reducing data  redundancy which in turn leads to better data consistency (O’brien, 2003).The other notable advantage of database management system (DBMS) is data integration: since related data is stored in one single database, enforcing data integrity is much easier. Moreover, the functions of the database management system (DBMS) can be used to enforce the integrity rules with minimum programming in the application programs. Data sharing is another advantage of a database management system (DBMS): Related data can be shared across programs since the data is stored in a centralized manner. Even new applications can be developed to operate against the same dat a since several users can access and use the same data for different purposes, provided they are authorized users, as you might be aware that databases are normally protected by passwords to avoid unauthorized users from accessing and or manipulating such database content (Date, 2003:268-276).Enforcement of standards and better controls are also achieved due to the centralized nature of the system. Standards in the organization and structure of data files is required, and is also easy in a data system since it is one single set of programs which is always interacting with the data files. Another advantage which gives database management system (DBMS) a plus is application development ease: the application programmer need not build the functions for handling issues like concurrent access, security, data integrity to mention but a few, the programmer instead only needs to implement the application business rules.This hence brings in application development ease because addition of add itional functional modules becomes easier than in file-based systems. Nijssen, (1976:158) outlines that data independence is yet another merit of database management system (DBMS): He outlines that data independence is isolating an upper level from the changes in the organization or structure of a lower level. For example, if changes in the file organization of a data file do not demand for changes in the functions in the database management system (DBMS) or in the application programs, data independence is achieved. He further defines that data as immunity of applications to change in physical representation and access techniques.The provision of data independence is one of the major objectives of database systems due to the architectural nature of a database management system (DBMS) which can be viewed as a three level system comprising the internal or physical level where the data resides, the  conceptual level which the level of the DBMS functions and last but not the least th e external level which is the level of application programs or the end users. Due to the centralized nature of a database management system (DBMS) maintenance cost is reduced thus accounting for yet another advantage of DBMS.It is generally acceptable that it costs much less to create a system of smaller computers with the equivalent power as a single large and expensive computer. This makes it more cost-effective for corporate divisions and departments to obtain separate and less expensive computers. It is also much more cost-effective to add workstations to a network than to update a mainframe system. Another dimension of cost reduction is taking advantage of economies of scale. It is generally argued that the cost of processing and maintenance of individual and geographically remote systems may be expensive as opposed to processing and maintaining a centralized system which may be much economical because the technical expertise required for running such a complex system can be ce ntralized or concentrated at one site hence reducing the cost which could have been incurred for running separate and geographically remote systems (Conolly, 1997).DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSDespite the various advantages of database management systems (DBMS), it is worth pointing out that it has its own shortcomings or disadvantages or rather challenges, and some of them include confidentiality, privacy and security: It is worth noting that when information is centralized and is accessed by a huge number of users remotely, the possibility of abuse are often more, as opposed to a conventional data processing system, thereby compromising the levels of confidentiality, privacy and security. Therefore, to reduce the chance of unauthorized users from accessing and abusing sensitive information, it is necessary to take technical, administrative, and possibly legal measures to curb such abuse if a database management system (DBMS) is to continue to serve its intended purp ose of informing, entertaining and indeed educating the masses (Laudon, 2004:223).Similarly, since the database is accessible to many users remotely, adequate controls are needed to control unauthorized users from updating data on the database if data quality and data integrity are to be maintained. Additionally, with the increased number of users accessing data directly, there are greater  opportunities for the users to damage the database unless there are suitable controls put in place to ensure data accessibility and quality is not compromised. Enterprise vulnerability is yet another challenge of a database management system (DBMS). It is worth noting that centralizing all the data of an enterprise in one database may mean that such a database becomes an indispensable and a reliable resource.Therefore, the survival of the enterprise may depend on reliable information being available on its database all the time. If the risk of possible damage is left unchecked by overlooking ad equate maintenance and upgrading, the whole enterprise therefore becomes vulnerable to higher impact of failure. According to (Conolly, 1997:689), complexity and cost account for another demerit of a database management system (DBMS). It is common knowledge that a complex conceptual design process needs multiple external well qualified staff with the necessary technical expertise, who are in most instances scarce and possibly expensive to hire.The fact that a complex system requires additional and or new hardware and software for maintenance and or upgrading which are expensive even worsens the prohibitive cost of running an effective database management system (DBMS) for small enterprises as they normally struggle with cost justification for making such huge investments in the infrastructure, or backup and recovery in cases of damage and or failure of the system.JUSTIFICATION FOR A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR A MULTI-CAMPUS UNIVERSITY LIBRARYDespite the above outlined disadvanta ges of database management systems (DBMS), it is worth noting that the advantages of DBMS outweigh the disadvantages and some of the weaknesses should be viewed as mere challenges of database management systems (DBMS) as opposed to being disadvantages because they can be mitigated. For example, the challenges of cost of running a complex database management system can be mitigated by cutting the relative cost of data transmission across the network by introducing local access.It may be much more economical to partition the application and perform the processing locally at each site or rather at each at each campus library of the multi-campus university. Furthermore, the challenge of prohibitive cost of kick starting and or running a complex database management system (DBMS) can also be minimized by the application of what is known as the â€Å"Grosh’s law† of economics which argues that: computing power is calculated according to the square of the  cost of the equipm ent: three times the cost could provide nine times of power, which is why it costs much less to create a system of small computers with the equivalent power of a single large computer.This makes it more cost-effective for corporate divisions and departments to obtain small separate computers, which in this case can be equated to running a small and cost-effective library networks at each site of the multi-campus university (Conolly, 1997:688). He goes on to argue that a distributed database management system (DDBMS) could be ideal for a multi-campus university library as opposed to a centralized database management system (CDBMS) due to improved availability and improved reliability.On the one hand, improved availability is enhanced in the sense that unlike in a centralized database management system (CDBMS) where a computer failure can terminate the operations of the database management system (DBMS), conversely, a failure at one site of a distributed database management system (DD BMS) or a failure of a communication link making same sites inaccessible does not render the entire system inoperable. It is however impressive to note that in this type of a system, if a single node fails, the system may be able to reroute the failed node’s request to another site hence improving availability to various users of a multi-campus university library.On the other hand, improved reliability is also achieved because data may be replicated so that it exists in more than one site, similarly, the failure of a node or a communication link does not necessarily make the data inaccessible to various users of a multi-campus university library. Last but not the least, in a multi-campus library setup, data can physically reside nearest to where it is most often accessed, thus providing users with local control of the data that they interact with. This results in local autonomy of the data allowing users to enforce locally the policies regarding access to and or manipulation of their database management system (DBMS).CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, database management systems (DBMS) have continued to make data arrangement, storage, access and retrieval much easier than it used to be in the olden days. With the emergency of the relational model of database management systems (which is a software that is used to create and use a relational database-which in turn is a database that conforms to the relational model, and refers to a database’s data and schema), much of the  big challenge associated with handling large and complex databases has been reduced. With the continued and advances in research, it is highly expectant that more and advanced database management products will be availed on the market to improve on the existing ones hence further minimizing the challenges of running a complex database management system.

The Critical Path for Joes Toy Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Critical Path for Joes Toy Company - Essay Example The critical path is useful in tracking activities and ensuring that the various phases of the project occur within the stipulated time limits. Since each node in the critical path indicates the completion of a particular phase and also indicates the various paths of activity that have been undertaken for completion of that phase, it helps to clearly identify which elements of the plan are still incomplete and have to be incorporated into the next stage of the critical path. This method also helps to get the most important jobs done first. According to the critical path for Joe’s toy Company, there are certain elements that may be combined and implemented at the same time. For example, although the time Joe had originally allotted for funding and finalizing engineering is one week each, these projects can occur concurrently and be completed in one week to gain time. Also, the time required for building dies and tools, which was projected to be 12 weeks could be shortened furth er by investing more so that work continues during weekends. Further, Joe could also consider hiring another builder apart from Steve and diving the work between them so that project time is reduced. Two separate phases of a particular program can occur concurrently, as demonstrated in the critical path diagram. For example, establishing the advertising program and commencing initial promotional efforts can occur simultaneously with the procurement of equipment and building. Also, two different phases can be interlinked – such as project funding and engineering design, to which advertising campaign design may also be added. Debugging processes can occur simultaneously with a training of workers, through interlinking in the critical path.  Interlinking of projects is useful, mainly from the point of view of shortening the time frame required for completion of the projects. Since wages and salaries paid over a longer period can mean increased expenses, such interlinking is us eful in conserving finances through optimum use of time. Secondly, adequate time and attention can be given to each phase of the project when they are occurring concurrently.  

Logistics Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Logistics Management - Essay Example An organization can automate the workflow and management of the supply chain. There are different categories of logistic automation software that can help streamline the supply chain. Logistics management coordinates all logistics activities and integrates them with marketing, sales, finance, and information technology. Logistics also govern the complex information systems, communication, and control systems required in the business environment (Barnes, 2011). The success of a business depends on how fast it can manufacture, transport, get raw materials, improve the quality, and timely delivery to the customer. The transportation infrastructure of Multi-niche is poorly managed and organized. The supply chain heavily relies on transportation of raw materials and finished product. A well managed transportation system ensures products reach their customers at the right time and are distributed to the right destination. Constant communication and fleet tracking is necessary between the transportation department and fleet drivers. Multi-niche lacks the capacity to track the transportation process, which leads to the loss of products after they leave the warehouse. This will increase their accountability for customer products both in the warehouse and during transportation. The company also has to expand the capacity of their transport network in order to accommodate an increase in customer demands.

Personal Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Personal Statement - Essay Example The practice of Nursing takes account of complex links with different types of individuals as well as organizations, with carers, relatives and friends, and members from other career paths. It was at the day centre that I noticed my aptitude of giving support to individuals who are may be nervous or confused and I think this is a key ability one should posses for being a nurse. As part of my course, I started a second job placement at a nursing home. Here, the service users had different circumstances as well as requirements, and I found out how to balance their requirements and fulfil them in a manner that displays my use of initiative. My aspiration to become adult nurse has been additionally enhanced by my tenure in Cara charity organisation where I have developed people skills. I like the challenge of working in demanding situations and for me it is extremely gratifying to effectively take care of people and comfort them when they are in need and this is an additional reason of w hy I want to be an adult nurse. The kindness, self-sacrifice, endurance and aptitude of nurses with whom I have come into contact with have motivated me and helped in increasing my passion and enthusiasm for this profession. From observation as well as from personal understanding, I think the merits and expertise needed from a nurse take account of the intrinsic aspiration to help and look after individuals. Exceptional communication skills are crucial, and the capability to work autonomously but as well as part of a group. It is a skill to merge technical understanding and the proficiency gained from learning and training with compassionate behaviour towards people, and it is an opportunity to be there for them at whenever they are in need. I would like to become adult nurse because I find my existing profession extremely satisfying and pleasing; but I as well think I have a lot more to offer and am able to make that move from my existing job into an Adult Nurse. I am completely co mfortable with the shift work, the emotional difficulties and late hour jobs. People, with whom I work, always liked my pleasant behaviour and disposition; and encouraged me to apply for the course in adult nursing. It is necessary to have a firm and practical perceptive of what is required by a nurse before starting training (Christensen & Kockrow, 2010, p. 293). I think my previous, as well as current experience in different healthcare facilities allows me to be self-assured that I am prepared to dedicate my life and confront educational challenges, and have the endurance, consistency, responsibility as well as enthusiasm to undertake the necessary programme of study. I understand that the educational requirements of the course will be hard but I believe my interest and previous aptitude to gain knowledge will speak for itself. I work well with individuals at every level and I will gladly assume a leadership position when necessary. During my current working experience, I have bee n providing the helping to staff in handling patients’ affairs as well as to resolve argument with clients in tough conditions should there be a need. I have discovered that through this and a number of other customer service

Corporate Frauds and Absence of Ethical Demeanor Essay

Corporate Frauds and Absence of Ethical Demeanor - Essay Example As per Trevino and Weaver (2003), ethical culture is one which rouses ethical demeanor. Ethical leadership involves proper demeanor through interpersonal relationships and personal actions and the advocating such demeanors to subordinates, mainly through two-way communication, decision-making and reinforcement As per Martin and Cullen (2006), ethical climate in an organization refers to normative systems of organizational work climate mirroring the organization’s policies, procedures, and practices with moral outcomes. As per Victor and Cullen (1988), ethical work climate refers to the organizational procedures and practices that direct the decision-making of organization and the systematic outcomes to ethical dilemmas. The ethical climate is one of the main ingredients of the culture of an organization. Ethical climate plays a dominant role when fraud is observed in an organization. As per Shin (2012), CEOs’ ethical demeanor is directly associated with employeesâ€℠¢ overall view of the ethical atmosphere of the organization (Soltani, 2014, p.254). Enron on October 16, 2001, published figures that exposed conspicuous accounting malpractices. One of the questionable accounting practices followed by the Enron was that is improper accounting of a note receivable from Enron’s equity partners in different limited partnerships. WorldCom also indulged in one of the largest corporate accounting scandals in the US which were projected at $14 billion as of March 2004. SEC alleged that WorldCom purportedly exaggerated its† revenue before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA)† in 2001 and in 2002 (SEC Annual Report 2002). HealthSouth Corporation of USA ordered the accounting personnel’ of the company to inflate the revenue to match the Wall Street analyst’ projections (Soltani, 2014, p.262).

Existentialism vs. Relativism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Existentialism vs. Relativism - Essay Example Existentialists believe that personal choices are unique and do not have to be based on an objective form of truth (Waugh, 2004: pp. 432). Relativism serves as the antagonist of absolutism. These are individuals who perceive every situation in life as having two different perspectives and understanding. Relativism personalities believe that the truth or falsity of a concept is relative to the social context from which the idea is generated. Their idea is that what is true for an age group, social class or tribe, might not be true for the same age group, social class and tribe in a different setting. They appreciate that there exists diversity in the norms that are upheld by various societies (McLachlan, 2005: pp. 92). Key Distinctions between Existentialism and Relativism Sartre used existentialism following the World War II as a basis of framing the political and social issues. Camus on the other hand assisted in the popularization of the philosophy, by focusing on personal freedom and individualism. It served as a justification to challenge the regimes at that time and the administrators and citizens embraced the philosophy as a solace to the frustrations they were encountering from domestic and foreign policies between 1960s and 1970s (Waugh, 2004: pp. 432). ... Unlike the existentialists who try to understand the events in their life after happening, the relativists expose the events of other people to research and gain knowledge that depict their future events (McLachlan, 2005: pp. 92). Existentialists believe in human free will. They believe that religion, law, society, and ethics do not indentify an individual. They believe that an individual is able to define himself if he violates the norms set by the society and challenges the preset standards. They believe that an individual is at his best when he is struggling against nature and struggling to maintain his life. They are excited by challenges and find pleasure in going against all the preset rules. Existentialists believe that in doing this, they are able to attach meaning to what they believe in and also attach meaning to their life since they just do not follow rules without understanding them (Waugh, 2004: pp. 432). However, relativists believe that an individual is defined by the society in which he exists. They believe that rules define the norms of a society and set apart what is right from what is wrong. Besides, they acknowledge the fact that different societies have different rules and regulations and hence respect the diversity that exists in individuals. Relativists do not struggle with life and they believe that life flows with nature and the life of others should be used as a specimen not to make the same mistakes. They have the notion that life should be programmed and should not be haphazard in bid to discover oneself (McLachlan, 2005: pp. 92). Relativists believe in having their own way and they do not have the â€Å"it is my fault† mentality. They have the rationale that what they are experiencing is better placed than what

Principles of Statistics In-Module Assessment Coursework

Principles of Statistics In-Module Assessment - Coursework Example The period over which the exchange rate is observed is January, 1973 to January 2013. Annual observations are used; for each year, a single value of the exchange rate is observed. Thus, there are 43 annual observations on the exchange rate in the sample of data. Before turning to the specific characteristics of the series, it may be useful to note the significance of forecasting foreign exchange rates. For any economy that is open to international trade, the foreign exchange rates play important roles in deciding policies governing most of the important macro-economic variables in the economy. Particularly since the settlement of most international transactions occur within a short future horizon, the exchange rates likely to be applicable at the time of settlement assumes importance. The magnitude of the associated cash flows in terms of the domestic currency are evaluated by using foreign currency conversions. And these conversions are obtained by denominating the domestic currency by the foreign currency of the trade partner through the foreign exchange rate for the pair of countries (Taylor 1995). ... Since the natural logarithm is a monotonic transformation, all dynamic properties of the series are preserved, only the scale of the magnitude is smaller. Figure 1: The exchange rate between the Japanese Yen and the US Dollar The first and foremost point to be noted is that the price of the Dollar has exhibited a downward trend over the time horizon under consideration. Starting at slightly above 5.8 in 1971, the value of the series has ended at around 4.6 in 2013. However, the series has not continuously declined. It has exhibited periods of upward movements as well as downward movements. The length and magnitude of the downward movements however, dominate the trend. As a result, the overall trend of the series is that of a decline. A closer look reveals that the series exhibits a particular persistence: a downward movement continues for a few years as does an upward movement. That is, once a dip starts, it persists for a few years. Similarly, once an upward swing starts, it seems t o persist for a few years. This pattern of persistence will become important in the forecasting phase. It should also be noted that the average length of the persistence of upswings is visibly smaller than the average length of the downswings. This pattern is particularly clear for the years after 1985. The other pattern worthy of note is that the overall magnitude of increases in the exchange rate over periods of appreciation is smaller than the observed magnitudes of decline in the exchange rate during periods of decreases. Barring the years between 1977 and 1983, this holds true for every period of decline and period of increase. Therefore, the observed pattern of decline in the Japanese price of the US dollar is explained by two

Human resource development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human resource development - Essay Example This process of changing employees’ behavior match with the concepts of cognitive theory. Ii Experiential learning is the process whereby knowledge is transferred through the transformation of experience (Reid, Barrington & Brown, 2007). This directly relate to the development of human resource development programs which trains employees to learn from the past to improve their present and future. Iii Situated learning theory explains that learning is a process of learning that emphasizes on the socio-cultural setting and the activities of the people within the setting (Smith & Sadler, 2006). This theory directly relate to the human resource development programs as they always seek to strengthen the individual employees; in their endeavors’ to pursue and expand their skills and experience in specific careers they may have opted to pursue. Experiential learning is a process, not necessarily in terms of outcomes but in terms of experience. It states that learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically conflicting modes of adaptation to the real world (Reid, Barrington & Brown, 2007). It explains that learning by its precise nature is full of tension. The theory describes learning as the transaction that takes place between the person and the environment. Through this theory; the process of knowledge creation comes as a result of the transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge. According to cognitive theory, individuals decide to lay their effort in the task that they believe they can perform and produce best expected result (Buckley & Capler, 2009). It argues that the decision about which activities an individual decides to engage in is based on the combinations of different factors like expectation, valence and instrumentality. This theory has a significant impact on the